ANXIETY (like any other personality variable--intelligence, introversion, conscientiousness, etc.) Is conceptualized as a hypothetical construct or intervening variable in psychological research. This is because personality variables are internal and hidden from direct observation. Ideally, such hypothetical constructs are “grounded” so that we can measure them or estimate their magnitude. Hypothetical constructs can be grounded on the Response side and the Stimulus side (ideally on both).

STIMULUS------->magnitude of personality variable (hidden inside)------>RESPONSE

Anxiety has been grounded on the response side in 4 ways:

Verbal report--either informal “I’m tense” or formal (the Manifest Anxiety Scale--MAS)

Clinical judgment--ex., observation of defense mechanisms

Physiological signs--ex., heart rate, GSR

Signs of molar behavior--ex., posture, muscular rigidity

On the STIMULUS side, ANXIETY can be inferred by the presence of STRESSORS (conditioned or unconditioned aversive stimuli) in the environment. In general, the term FEAR is used to describe an organism’s internal state in the presence of unconditioned aversive stimuli (car crash) or conditioned aversive stimuli (squealing breaks before the car crash) that are realistically threatening; ANXIETY is used to describe an organism’s internal state in the presence of conditioned aversive stimuli that are not realisticaly threatening (airplanes for a plane phobic). Fear and anxiety are conceptualized as similar emotional states.

UNDERWOOD and tactics of research on individual difference (personality) variables:

1. Go beyond single correlations

2. If possible, relate the individual difference variable to a more fundamental process about which we know a great deal (e.g., learning, drive, etc.)

3. If possible, induce different levels of this personality variable by experimental manipulation in unselected groups (experimental research).