Bettina Arnold - Heuneburg Archaeological Project: Research Design

A Landscape of Ancestors: The Heuneburg Archaeological Project

Working Research Design

Matthew L. Murray and Bettina Arnold

The Landscape of Ancestors project in southwest Germany is associated with the important early Iron Age (600-400 BC) Heuneburg hillfort, which has been a focus for cooperative international investigations since the 1950s. Excavations at the Heuneburg have had a significant impact on our understanding of early Iron Age settlement and social structures. Rich graves have been discovered in the hillfort surroundings, including the Hohmichele tumulus, one of the largest early Iron Age burial mounds in western Europe. The Landscape of Ancestors project is located within a formative area for the historic development of Iron Age studies in Central Europe. This well-studied region continues to be a fruitful focus of investigation with considerable public involvement and high profile publicity.

The Landscape of Ancestors project provides a new perspective on the investigation of early Iron Age communities. The project combines excavation and genetic analysis within a holistic landscape context. It contributes to an understanding of the structure and formation of tumulus cemeteries, social structures and gender representation, the role of monuments in the cultural capitals of Celtic polities, and the regional dynamics among early Iron Age power centers. The project interfaces with several ongoing major research projects: 1) establishment of an open-air museum at the Heuneburg sponsored by the European Union (EU); 2); a multi-year survey and excavation program funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and the EU investigating early Iron Age settlement structures in the surroundings of the hillfort; and 3) excavations of tumulus cemeteries and settlements associated with the Heuneburg undertaken by the Baden-Württemberg State Monuments Office (Landesdenkmalamt). The project was initiated in 1997 and involves archaeological investigation of early Iron Age tumuli and ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis of human remains from early Iron Age sites.

Project Research Design

The Landscape of Ancestors Project addresses four important themes in European Iron Age archaeology that have general implications for the archaeological investigation of complex societies. These themes are: 1) tumulus structure and formation processes, 2) social structures, 3) the social landscape, and 4) regional interactions.

Theme 1: Tumulus Structure and Formation Processes

The first theme addresses the structure and formation processes of early Iron Age mounds in the Hohmichele group and on the Danube Plain. Complete excavation of several mounds will provide additional information about tumulus construction and the long term processes involved in the creation and maintenance of these monuments. A burial mound does not reflect a single moment in time, but represents a palimpsest of primary and secondary uses as a tomb, as well as subsequent modifications. These observations are crucial clues to the fact that existing burial monuments were scrupulously maintained by subsequent generations, which is echoed in the reuse of many ritually redolent locales by later Iron Age communities.

The physical structure of late prehistoric burial mounds in Central Europe is poorly known, yet these monuments are crucial to an understanding of the scale and socio-political oganization of the early Iron Age societies that erected them (cf. Eggert 1988; Kurz 1998; and on a related topic, Schulze-Forster and Vorlauf 1989). The best preserved mounds were unsystematically excavated in the nineteenth century without any attempt to record information regarding mound construction. Most modern excavations of early Iron Age cemeteries have focused on salvage operations in cultivated areas where the mound superstructures have been severely eroded or even completely destroyed, leaving only traces of the mound foundation, boundary (if present), and sometimes subsurface features and/or interments. Prehistorians have attempted to reconstruct mound size and complexity mainly on the basis of these remnants (eg., Biel 1985; Kurz 1998; Kurz and Schiek n.d.; Reim 1988); however, the lack of information concerning mound superstructures has led to a very incomplete understanding of mortuary practices and the temporal scale of mound construction and use.

In 1999 and 2000, excavations in Tumulus 17 of the Hohmichele mound group revealed stratigraphic evidence of a sequence of mound-building episodes characterized by at least seven distinct fill layers. Excavation also documented a series of secondary features in some fill layers, including discrete deposits of charcoal, burned and unburned pottery, and stone settings. Some of the features appear to be the remains of small hearths, altars, or even sacrificial offerings. The mound stratigraphy and secondary features provide substantial evidence that Tumulus 17 was modified subsequent to its original erection over a central burial chamber. During this process of modification or maintenance, small fires were built and offerings were placed in the mound. Many features yielded large amounts of charcoal which will allow the absolute dating of the features as well as the stratigraphic layers of fill in which the features were found. Pottery fragments recovered from some layers and features will be used to establish a relative sequence of mound construction and deposition. Burials uncovered in Tumulus 17 during the 2000 field season range in date from 600-450 BC, suggesting a longer use-life for the mounds in this group than was originally thought.

Very few large intact tumuli have been excavated by modern methods in southwest Germany, apart from the Hohmichele in the late 1930s (Riek 1962), Tumulus IV of the Gießübel-Talhau group near the Heuneburg in the 1950-1960s (Kurz and Schiek n.d.), the Grafenbühl near Hohenasperg in the 1960s (Zürn 1970), and the Magdalenenberg in the early 1970s (Spindler 1976, 1983). Discussions of stratigraphy, mound construction, and fill episodes even in these excavation reports are sparse, since the goal of most excavations was the recovery of materials from the central and secondary tombs. The Hohmichele was only partly excavated, and while the excavation maintained high standards for the time, significant questions remain about aspects of the mound structure. Riek identified a number of charcoal features and pottery deposits in the mound fill, which he classified as discrete deposits or Holzkohlenester. The nature of these secondary deposits has recently been challenged (Kurz and Schiek n.d.), suggesting that they are redeposited materials from bronze Age cremation burials and settlements. Based on the results of the 1999 field season at Tumulus 17, Riek's original interpretation of the finds as discrete cultural deposits is a more likely interpretation. Since the study of mound stratigraphy and secondary non-mortuary deposits has been deemphasized in other excavations, the results of investigation at Tumulus 17 have a heightened significance.

The scale of the central chamber or enclosure in Tumulus 17 is exceptionally large for a Hallstatt period burial mound, measuring approximately 5x5m. It is slightly larger than the central "princely" tombs at Hochdorf (4.7x4.7m), Grafenbühl (4.4x4.5m), and the Hohmichele (5.5x3.5m) (Bittel et al. 1981). The size of the chamber in Tumulus 17 suggests a grave of considerable importance, possibly the resting place of a significant personage, and it is a mortuary feature with few parallels in the early Iron Age of southwest Germany. Unfortunately, the central cremation had been thoroughly looted, and only fragments of iron weapons, pottery and sheet bronze from items destroyed during the pillaging of the burial remained as evidence of what must have been a richly appointed grave. Four bronze fragments recovered from the looters' trench had textile remnants adhering to the metal; these are currently being analyzed as to material as well as the spinning and weaving techniques used to produce the fabric and matting that were part of the grave trappings.

The looted central grave of Tumulus 17 contained a multiple, bi-ritual burial, with a female inhumation up against the eastern chamber wall and a (probably male) cremation in the center. The chamber is rather large for a cremation grave, and central burials of excavated early Iron Age mounds associated with the Heuneburg are invariably inhumations (Kurz and Schiek n.d.). However, there were several indications at the end of the 1999 season that a central cremation grave was likely, including a dense layer of charcoal and burned pottery overlying the inner mound, as well as concentrations of charcoal and small fragments of burned bone associated with the central enclosure. Similar areas of burned earth in association with charcoal concentrations have been recorded in other Hallstatt period mounds in Baden-Württemberg, such as the tumulus cemetery of Böblingen (Bittel et al. 1981:308-310). Bi-ritual graves are known from this period, such as Hohmichele Grave VII, which contained an inhumation and the remains of a cremated individual (Wahl in Kurz and Schiek n.d.).

There are some interesting parallels between the Hohmichele and Tumulus 17 in spite of the difference in size between the two mounds. Both seem to have been constructed beginning around 600 BC; both lack any sort of basal demarcation; both have a dense, stone-free layer of gray clay acting as a symbolic cap over the burials in the mound while simultaneously acting as an internal stabilizing element; and both yielded evidence for small hearths or offering places on later mound surfaces, indicating that activity did not cease once the burials had been covered over. Several important questions remain concerning mound structure in the Hohmichele mound group, however. What is the nature of the central enclosures or chambers in these mounds? How do the secondary burials relate to each other and to the central interment? In Tumulus 17, all three of the well-preserved inhumation graves were oriented with the head toward the south and the feet to the north, following the orientation of the central chamber - in spite of the fact that more than a century seems to have passed between the deposition of the central burial and the last of the graves to be deposited in the mound. How are secondary deposits and features distributed throughout the mound, both horizontally and stratigraphically, and what do these patterns suggest about activities at the mound after its original construction? An analysis of pottery from various features within the mound is currently underway that might help to answer this question. Are there differences between the features that can be linked to activities associated with the primary burial and those that were deposited later? How much time is represented by the original construction and continued use of the mound? These questions can only be addressed by additional excavation of mounds within this group. Tumulus 18, a mound just across the logging road from Tumulus 17 that is comparable in dimensions and therefore likely also in date, will be excavated in the summer of 2002 in order to provide basis for comparison with Tumulus 17. Like Tumulus 17, it has also been significantly impacted by looting as well as badger and fox burrowing activity, and is considered at risk because of its proximity to the main road.

Theme 2: Early Iron Age Social Structures

The second theme of the project involves early Iron Age social structures, genetic relationships within and between populations, and gender configurations. This theme combines conventional mortuary and physical anthropological analyses with study of aDNA from the early Iron Age inhabitants of the Heuneburg region and beyond.The analysis of aDNA provides an opportunity to identify residence patterns, forms of generational succession, and rank and status configurations.

The interpretation of early Iron Age burials has been severely hampered by the limitations of conventional anthropological investigation of sex and genetic kinship (cf. Alt, Munz and Vach 1995; Ehrhart and Simon 1968; Müller 1994). Recent developments in the analysis of aDNA (Hummel and Hermann 1994) suggest new avenues for research that have the potential to revolutionize our understanding of early Iron Age social organization, since they provide the opportunity to ask precisely the kinds of questions conventional analysis cannot answer. For example, French scientists are currently examining genetic material from the Vix "princess" in order to lay to rest the question of whether this individual was a high ranking female (Arnold 1991; Spindler 1983).

Excavation of Tumulus 17 uncovered the layout of the central burial and three associated graves as well as features associated with later funerary rites within and on the tumulus. These patterns are the social "maps" commonly read by prehistorians investigating the early Iron Age. Grave goods are traditionally considered to be indicators of the social standing and personal life of the deceased. Individuals buried within the large mounds of the early Iron Age are usually thought to be members of a single social group. traditional methods of archaeological mortuary analysis include grave good assemblages and spatial positioning within the mound, in order to assess status, rank, gender, and group symbolism. Excavations will eventually expand to investigate mounds outside the Hohmichele group, where skeletal preservation is too poor to contribute to the genetic component of the project.

Since most mounds contain both male and female individuals, and because the qualitative and quantitative range of grave goods is considerable, it is unlikely that individual tumuli represent either guilds or age-sets. On the other hand, they are far from demographically normal, since infants and children are under represented, while males are over represented to a degree that suggests gender asymmetry. The application of aDNA analysis has the potential to revolutionize our understanding of early Iron Age social organization.

The social units represented by early Iron Age tumulus cemeteries in west-central Europe are still poorly understood. In spite of Ludwig Pauli's suggestion over 25 years ago that matriarchal structures are evident at cemeteries in northern Württemberg (Pauli 1972), there has been a tacit assumption that the cemeteries represent patriarchal family groups (see Arnold 1991, 1996). We do not know, therefore, whether the tumuli represent extended family groups or economic units in the form of households, including unrelated individuals such as servants, retainers, and armed retinues. If these are family groups, then we do not know if they represent relationships by blood, marriage, or both. An understanding of this organization could lead to an elucidation of other kinds of fundamantal social traditions, such as residence patterns.

Excavations within the Heuneburg hillfort have revealed a series of distinct occupation phases, including a destruction horizon in the mid-sixth century BC (Kimmig 1983). The destruction horizon is associated with the demise of the so-called "mudbrick wall" phase of the hillfort occupation, characterized by elaborate and very unusual (for temperate Europe) fortifications built of dried mudbrick. Later hillfort defenses consisted of more typical earth, wood, and stone ramparts. The mounds in the vicinity of the hillfort represent both occupation phases of the site. Genetic analysis should therefore help determine if the post-mudbrick wall occupation is associated with a new group of people or simply represents a different lineage within the original population (Kurz and Schiek n.d.). The continuity represented at Tumulus 17 by its 100-150 years of use-life suggests that in fact there was no break in the population of the Heuneburg between HaD2 and HaD3. This hypothesis also remains to be tested by additional excavation. Tumulus 18 may help to clarify what at the moment is merely the suggestion that the mudbrick wall Heuneburg population and their successors were one and the same people. Recent discoveries in the outer settlement by Professor Hartmann Reim and Hans Teufel appear to confirm the view that the Period IV and III occupations do not represent a break in the cultural developments at the site.

Gender configurations are also a focus of the project. Prehistorians commonly define sex and gender roles in burials indirectly based on the presence or absence of certain grave goods as well as skeletal morphology. Identification of sex through aDNA will provide a direct link to an individual's sexual status and will allow us to re-assess current assumptions about grave good assemblages and gender.

Matrilineal succession is documented in a number of Celtic cultures in the british Isles, and is also hinted at in the Classical texts for the Continental Celts as well as in the aforementioned study by Ludwig Pauli. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA, which is passed down only through the mother, should enable the identification of matrilineal succession if it existed within our sample during the early Iron Age in southwest Germany. Multiple burials occasionally contain both male and female individuals, and traditional interpretations of this type of burial tend to assume that the male individual represents the primary interment, whereas the female burial is another category of grave good. This assumption fails to take into account the existence of certain female burials that were placed in mounds of their own. Analysis of aDNA will make it possible to examine many of the assumptions that have hitherto dominated interpretations of early Iron Age social organization. A comparison of individuals between tumuli would also make it possible to determine what motivated the construction of a new mound, another problematic issue which currently cannot be adequately addressed. Graves 4 and 5 in Tumulus 17 pose an interesting dilemma: the inhumation (Grave 4) appears on the basis of grave goods to have been female, while the few remaining grave good fragments from cremation Grave 5 suggest a male individual. Ordinarily in late Hallstatt bi-ritual burials the cremation grave is considered secondary, but the position of the (female) inhumation at the edge of the chamber appears to contradict this idea in the case of the central chamber burials. Clearly more excavation will be needed to determine whether or not such generalizations can be made at all during this time period.

As part of the project, genetic data from skeletal material recovered within the Heuneburg hillfort will be compared to specimens from burial mounds in the nearby Giessübel-Talhau group. The mound group is the closest burial community to the hillfort and it post-dates the mudbrick wall phase of the Heuneburg. This mound group is the only known cemetery in the Heuneburg region to contain graves with gold neckrings, which are considered a significant symbol of status and power in early Iron Age society.

There are 43 reported sets of human remains from previous investigations in the Heuneburg region, including 40 specimens from the hillfort and three individuals from burials in the Giessübel-Talhau mound group (Ehrhardt and Simon 1971). We have obtained permission to sample and test eight specimens. Individuals discovered at the hillfort and dated to the Hallstatt D1 horizon (Period IV mudbrick wall phase at the Heuneburg) will be compared to individuals from Tumuli 1 and 4 of the Giessübel-Talhau group, which are dated to the Hallstatt D2 horizon (Period III at the Heuneburg). This comparison will seek to resolve the relationship between inhabitants of the Period IV Heuneburg, who lived within massive and highly unusual mudbrick fortifications, and the subsequent Period III occupation, which featured a more traditional earth and wood defense system. The Period III settlement was built on the ruins of the mudbrick wall occupation, and it has been suggested that the population may have been as different as their choice of fortification system. Three samples from burials and cultural deposits at the Heuneburg dated to the Hallstatt D1 horizon (Inv. Nos. 2710, 3166, and 3504) will be compared to Hallstatt D2 remains from the central burial of Tumulus 4 (Inv. No. 3192) and two individuals from Tumuli 1, 2, or 3 (Inv. Nos. 2830 and 2831). A fourth sample is from a female dated to the latest occupation phase at the Heuneburg (Hallstatt D3 or La Tene A horizon). Testing of this individual will provide comparative data for later inhabitants of the hillfort. A comparison between individuals within different mounds of the Giessübel-Talhau burial community will also provide clues to the motivations behind new mound construction and the relationships between members of different mounds within a single mound group dating to the same archaeological horizon.

Theme 3: The Social Landscape of the Heuneburg

Although field investigations in 1999 and 2000 focused the excavation of Tumulus 17, this mound is only a small part of the Hohmichele mound group, which in turn is a significant element within the Heuneburg archaeological landscape. The third theme of the project considers the local cultural setting of the Heuneburg mounds and their place within the early Iron Age landscape. The burial monuments' importance may not have ended with the demise of the Hallstatt culture and the establishment of the La Tène culture in the region. In fact, an examination of the local archaeological landscape reveals that the mound group was indeed a focus of activity well into the later Iron Age. This fits the hypothesis suggested by the project's results thus far: that the Heuneburg was still a center of activity well into the early La Tène period, and was not abandoned at the end of the Hallstatt period, as has traditionally been assumed.

Each successive generation inherits a landscape that has been modified and endowed with meaning by its predecessors (Murray 1992, 1993, 1996a). This landscape may be used to represent and legitimate a particular view of the world, or altered to reflect new ideas, new relationships, and new social or political events. The cultural landscape of the Heuneburg is viewed as an archaeological text, a multilayered cultural document that was structured and manipulated over time by succeeding generations of Celtic polities. The Heuneburg landscape was part of the cultural capital available for social and political discourse during the Iron Age, and it was utilized or manipulated as cultural and social conditions changed and historic events unfolded. During this process, older portions of the cultural landscape may be used in new ways as people make reference to the power and security of traditional beliefs and the wisdom of the ancestors. Elements of the Iron Age ancestral landscape, such as Tumulus 17 within the Hohmichele mound group, were incorporated into later social and political structures that made reference to the existing monuments and their intended (and interpreted) meanings.

Clear evidence of such symbolic "recycling" is apparent at the Hohmichele mound group, which represents one of the most dramatic concurrences of early Iron Age burial monuments and a late Iron Age rectilinear enclosure. The function of these later Celtic enclosures, known as Viereckschanzen, is currently under debate, with interpretations ranging from elite residential units or feasting places to cultic shrines (Bittel et al. 1990; Murray 1996b; Wieland 1998; Venclová). A significant number of these structures appear to have been placed to take advantage of pre-existing monuments within ancestral burial grounds (Murray 1996b).

As part of the project, local Landesdenkmalamt archaeologists and archives will be consulted to compile a data base and distribution maps of known cultural sites for the final millennium BC, from the late bronze Age, when the Heuneburg was first fortified, to the end of the late Iron Age, when Rome extended its frontier to the Danube River. These data will be used to create a cultural landscape history of the region and examine the establishment and long-term use of the Heuneburg and the Hohmichele mound group. The results of all four themes of the project will be incorporated into this history. The process of tumulus construction, maintenance, and reuse, and genetic relationships among burial communities and between hillfort occupations will elucidate some of the social and political processes active in the changing cultural landscape of the final millennium BC.

Theme 4: Regional Dynamics

The fourth theme of the project engages the issue of regional relationships and interactions between early Iron Age communities. As a result of contact with the Mediterranean via the Greek trading center of Massalia (modern Marseilles) between 600 and 400 BC, the region currently comprised of southwest Germany, eastern France, and subalpine Switzerland experienced far-reaching changes in socio-political organization. Similar to the Heuneburg hillfort, the Hohenasperg settlement near Stuttgart underwent an increase in population size and social complexity partly as a result of this contact (Frankenstein and Rowlands 1978; Wells 1980; Kimmig 1983; among others). The Hohenasperg is approximately 95km northwest of the Heuneburg and is partly contemporary with it.

Many of these early Iron Age hillforts and their associated burial mounds contain imported Mediterranean pottery and metal drinking vessels testifying to their contact with the Greek and Etruscan worlds. However, the extent and form of that contact is unclear and much disputed (Arafat and Morgan 1994; Arnold 1988, 1996, 1999; Bintliff 1984; Dietler 1990; among others). Interpretations range from a prestige goods economy fueled by organized trade to the exchange of diplomatic gifts without regular trade contact. The actual presence of Mediterranean traders in the hillfort settlements as direct transmitters of Mediterranean material culture and way of life has even been suggested. Proto-urban centers like the Heuneburg and the Hohenasperg must have been linked to one another in some form, judging from the uniformity of elite material culture found at these settlements during the early Iron Age. The nature of that relationship cannot be more closely defined on the basis of material culture alone, and a direct comparison between the genetic makeup of their respective populations may provide clues.

A comparison of the Heuneburg and Hohenasperg populations would facilitate an interpretation of the relationship that existed between these two early Iron Age centers and could clarify aspects of regional dynamics in the early Iron Age of southwest Germany. The Hohenasperg was contemporary with later occupation phases of the Heuneburg but seems to have outlasted it in importance. Aspects of the social and political relationships between these two communities may be recorded in the genetic makeup of their respective populations. The similarities in elite material culture found in high status burials suggests there may have been exchange of individuals in marriage alliances between the hillfort populations. If mitochondrial DNA analysis shows that a close genetic relationship existed between individuals from these sites, we may be compelled to see the sites as part of an integrated system rather than as discrete units, which has been the norm to date.

As part of the aDNA analysis for the project, human genetic material from the Heuneburg communities (including the hillfort, Giessübel-Talhau mounds, and Tumulus 17) will be compared to specimens obtained from the Grafenbühl mound associated with the Hohenasperg hillfort. A genetic comparison of samples from the two communities will address several specific research issues, including relationships between and among elite members of the Heuneburg and Hohenasperg communities. In addition, relationships among members of the Grafenbühl tumulus community may reveal genetic patterns relevant to a study of membership criteria for mound burial and will provide a second set of intra-mound data that can be compared to data from the Heuneburg region. Several graves in the Grafenbuhl mound contained the remains of more than one individual. Multiple burials are a well-known feature of Iron Age mortuary behavior (Oeftiger 1988), but traditional archaeological methods have yielded little understanding of the meanings and implications of this pattern because the relationships of the individuals associated in multiple burials are not known. Multiple burial combinations at the Grafenbühl include an adult female with child (Inv. No. 5370), a young adult female and young adult male (Inv. Nos. 5355a, b), and two adult males (Inv. Nos. 5357 and 5358). Ancient DNA data will examine whether these relationships were based on blood (consanguineal), marriage (affinal), superordinate or subordinate status (eg., master/slave), or other systems, and will contribute significantly to the study of early Celtic mortuary and social structures.

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