African American Research

African American Genealogical Research

Historical Overview

Most Black Americans are descended from slaves who were forcibly brought to the New World during the late 1600's through the middle 1800's. The "modern" slave trade began with the Portuguese in 1480. Some of the Africans bought then were sent to Europe, but most were shipped to the new Portuguese colonies in South America. In 1538, Africans were first brought to Brazil by Portuguese traders. Over the next 150 years, the slave trade was expanded by traders from England, France, Spain, and Holland. The first British ship to take slaves to North America arrived in 1619, when twenty captive Africans were brought to the settlement of Jamestown in Virginia.

The advent of European presence in Africa changed the face of the slave trade as it had previously existed. Powerful Africans on the Guinea Coast of West Africa saw a chance for enormous profits. These wealthy Africans set up an elaborate business system from which both they and the Europeans profited. The Europeans were allowed to build fortresses in the coastal territories of West Africa at highly inflated rental prices. These forts served partly as temporary stock houses where slaves were kept until the transport ships arrived. The acquisition process was a blatantly cruel ordeal. Europeans were rarely allowed to seize their own slaves. They had to purchase them--for guns, cannons, rum, and other European goods--from West African middlemen. The African middlemen procured slaves by attacking weaker tribes inland and selling the captives. The victims of these attacks were marched through the wilderness to the west coast. Many captives died along the way which kept the pressure on the traders to continue raids for more slaves. Most of the slaves came from African tribes living within 300 to 400 miles of the Atlantic Coast between the Congo and Gambia Rivers.

Since most tribal history in Africa exists only in oral narratives, this makes doing research in Africa very difficult, but by no means impossible. The regions in Africa from where slaves came from has been well documented. By taking the time to exam slave advertisements in old colonial newspapers, one will often find clues as to where various ships and groups originated. Plantation books may also be of some use. Some will actually show the ports in Africa, from where the slaves were shipped. Ship manifests do exist. The bibliography and organizations listed below will sources which can assist in tracking this information.

In modern times, since the end of the second World War, a significant number of people with African ancestry have emigrated to the United States from the Caribbean, and Western Europe, where their ancestors were also slaves at the hands of the British, French, Spanish, and Dutch.
Some African American soldiers who fought in the United States Army found themselves stationed in parts of Western Europe during the Cold War and Vietnam. Some became disenchanted with life in the United States and decided to renounce their citizenship and live in countries like Germany, France, Norway, Sweden, and Great Britain. Others who were "career soldiers" spent most of their adult lives stationed in these countries and returned to America after retirement.

African American Genealogical Records

The federal census data of most value to researchers in African American genealogical research ranges from 1870-1920. Only free men, black and white, were listed in the federal census. Prior to 1870, slaves were not listed. Other sources must be consulted unless your ancestors lived in the northern states. The Freedman's Bureau was established to assist former slaves in the transition process to freedom. The main services offered were: 1) Recording of slave marriages that took place prior to the Emancipation Proclamation. 2) Create a special banking system for former slaves. Microfilmed copies of these deposit records are available at the Western Reserve Historical Society of Cleveland, Ohio and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints LDS Family History Library Centers.

Research in courthouses is another potential source of genealogical information. Probate and chancery court records are excellent sources for identifying slaves. If a person died and left a will, slaves that were passed on to heirs were identified by first names. If no valid will existed at the time of death, an inventory of the deceased's property was made, perhaps listing "Negroes" by first name. In both instances you should look for groups of names that you recognize as belonging to one family.

Other overlooked sources for information are Bibles, church records, diaries, letters, and photographs which exist somewhere (perhaps hidden) around your home. Family Bibles can provide a wealth of family information that may not exist in official records. While Blacks were included in vital records compiled by the various states by the late nineteenth century, midwives rather than doctors delivered many African American children. Thus, in many cases, birth certificates were seldom issued. Under these circumstances, Family Bibles or church records may be the only sources available. Church records can also be crucial due to the fact that church attendance has usually been higher among blacks than whites. Church life was, in most cases, the center of a Black families life more so than for many White families.

Slave narratives are another possible source. Though very few slaves could read or write at the time of the Emancipation Proclamation, many learned to do so in the years and decades that followed. During the New Deal era, the Works Project Administration hired workers to interview as many former slaves still living as possible. More than 8,000 of these slave narratives have been located. Transcripts are available for over 4,000. Not all surviving slaves were willing to talk. They may have written about their experiences or kept diaries which were shared with family members only. Either way, it can be interesting to hear the former slaves discuss their reactions about the first years of freedom and discuss how the changes in lifestyle affected them. Old photographs are good, especially if they identify the people in the pictures and the dates when taken.

Military records can be another useful tool. Many slaves once they escaped from the South, joined the Union Army and fought in the Civil War. Their records would be part of the microfilm rolls for Union veterans. Black Americans also fought in the Revolutionary War, War of 1812, various Indian Wars, Civil War, Spanish-American War, and both World Wars. World War I Draft Registrations are another potential information source. In 1917 and 1918 three dates were set aside on which all male citizens between the ages of 18 and 45 were required to register for drafting into the United States Army. These WW I Draft Registrations, as well as other military records are valuable because they show the spelling of names, permanent address, employment information, birth date, circumstances surrounding his citizenship, and signature. All military records are available on microfilm at the National Archives.

African American newspapers and periodicals are another potential source for information. If your ancestors were prominent in the affairs of the African American community in which they lived, you may well find articles that discuss their activities or a biographical sketch.

Historical Problems Unique To African American Research

1) Slaves were property. The Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in 1863. This freedom was not represented on any census data until 1870. Prior to the 1870 census, slaves were considered property. They were bought, sold, rented out, and after the owners death, passed on, along with furniture, clothing, farm animals, wagons, and kitchen utensils. The only exceptions to this rule were the few blacks who either escaped or were fortunate enough to live in the northern states or territories not connected to the southern states that eventually became the Confederate States of America. In doing your research, you must include bills of sale, court records, deeds, wills, personal papers of slave owners, government records, and newspapers. Some of the White families in the area might be researched as well. Many white plantation owners had black mistresses. In some cases, the offspring and mistress were incorporated into the household in a discreet manner.

2) Slave Marriages Were Not Legal. Since slaves were considered pieces of property, their "marriages" were never officially recognized or recorded in any official documents.. Some slave owners allowed their slaves to perform marriages ceremonies and gave limited recognition to a "family unit" as we would define the term. Even in these circumstances, rare as they were, the "marriages" were never recorded. After the Emancipation Proclamation, the federal government established the Freedman's Bureau to assist former slaves in adjusting to society as free men. One of the critical services this agency performed was to record marriages that had taken place during the slavery era. The intent was commendable, and the officials were sincere in their efforts. However, because the recording was done after the fact, some marriages were missed, and the dates may not be completely accurate. Some marriages involving couples who died many years before the Emancipation Proclamation was passed into law, were causalities of this process. Even with these problems, the records were compiled and are valuable research tools.

3) Name Changes. After the Emancipation Proclamation, former slaves could choose any name to begin their new life as free people. The former slave could keep the name given to him by his master, or give himself any name of his choosing. After the Civil War ended, documentation indicates that some former slaves chose to remain with the former slave owners. Usually these were owners who tended to treat them far better than the norm. Since many of the young men of fighting age were killed during the war, these slaves stepped into the labor vacuum within the household. In some cases, they adopted the name of the deceased son or sons. This was rare, but it did happen. During the slavery era, slaves had only first names. Any published records, such as wills or deeds referred to them by first names only. Some former slaves chose the surname of the men who once owned them. One of the myths that still exists implies that all former slaves followed this pattern. The evidence does not support this statement.

4) Illiteracy. Slaves in the southern states were forbidden by law from learning to read or write. Literacy among slaves was discouraged at all costs. Whites were fearful of uprisings. Any violation of this law brought severe punishments on both the slave, his or her family, and any other person or persons involved. When former slaves were first counted in the 1870 Census, few could spell their own names. The census takers were free to write whatever spelling they chose based on what they thought they heard or how they thought it was spelled. The census takers heard names like Jensie, Jabbo, Eliza, Kayla, or Euclar. The census takers simply spelled such names as best they could. As a result, in the 1870 Census, a name like Eliza may appear as Liza in 1880, and Litha in 1900. A name like Jensie in 1870 may appear later a Jessie, or Jenny, Jennifer, or James. Researchers in African-American research must be prepared for significant variations in name spellings and changes. Look for phonetic spellings and groups of names that you find appearing together throughout your research.

Organizations With Resources Of Interest To African American Genealogical Research

African American Family History Association, P.O. Box 115268, Atlanta, GA 30310. Telephone (404) 344-7405.

African American Genealogical Research Institute, Lori Husband-Director, P.O. Box 637, Matteson, IL 60443-6370. Telephone 708-748-0349.

African American Genealogy Group. P.O. Box 1798, Philadelphia, PA 19105-1798. Telephone (215) 572-6063.

African-American Historical and Genealogical Society (AAHGS), National Office, Barbara D. Walker-President, P.O. Box 73086, Washington, DC 20056-3086. Telephone (202) 234-5330. **Chapters are located nationwide.

Black Genealogy Project, P.O. Box 6825, Lubbock, TX 79473-6825. Marleta Childs.

Center for Afro-American and African Studies, (Library), 200 West Engineering Building, 550 East University Street, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. Telephone (313) 764-5518.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Family History Library, Genealogical Society of Utah, 35 North West Temple, Salt Lake City, UT 84150. Telephone (801) 240-2331. ** Branch libraries are located all across the country. Fort Myers-Lee County Library has a complete listing including addresses and telephone numbers. See Bryan L. Mulcahy for information.

Fred Hart Williams Genealogical Society, Detroit Public Library, Burton Historical Collection, 5201 Woodward Avenue, Detroit, MI 48202. Telephone (313) 833-1480.

Miriam B. Wilson Foundation, Old Slave Mart Museum and Library, 6 Chalmers Street, Charleston, SC 29401 (Street Location) P.O. Box 446, Sullivans Islands, SC 29482 (Mailing Address). Telephone (803) 883-3797.

Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, 500 Howard Place, NW, Washington, DC 20059. Telephone (202) 806-7239.

New York Public Library, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, 515 Lennox Avenue, New York, NY 10037. Telephone (212) 862-4000.

Plantation Society in the Americas, Department of History, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148. Telephone (504) 286-6886.

African American Genealogical Bibliography

Bentley, Elizabeth Petty. County Courthouse Book. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1990. Ref. 347.02 Ben. Contains detailed information on the 3,351 county courthouses in the United States, with addresses, phone numbers, and record holdings.

The Genealogists Address Book. 3rd Edition. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1995. Genealogy Ref. 929.102 Ben. Comprehensive listing of national and state organizations relevant to genealogical research. This includes archives, ethnic organizations, libraries, research facilities, and societies.

Black Studies: A Select Catalog Of National Archives Microfilm Publications. Washington, DC: National Archives Trust Fund Board, 1984. Genealogy Ref. 016.973 Uni. This is a comprehensive listing of research materials in the National Archives pertaining to Black American genealogical research.

Blockson, Charles L. and Ron Fry. Black Genealogy: How To Discover Your Own Family's Roots and Trace Your Ancestors Back Through An Eventful Past, Even To A Specific African Kingdom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977. 929.1 Blo. One of the best and most complete manuals for tracing African American roots. The author treats every aspect of the
search, with reproductions of indexes and registers you will encounter. Mr. Blockson even treats the steps back to Africa, but warns that success in Africa is mostly based on luck. This book is available for circulation.

Bunkley, Crawford B. African American Network: Get Connected To More Than 5,00 Prominent People And Organizations In The African American Community. New York, NY: Plume Books, 1996. Ref. 973.04 Bun. This book serve as a nation-wide locator for people and prominent organizations of interest to African Americans.

Everton, George B. Handybook For Genealogists: United States Of America Edition. 8th Edition. Logan UT: Everton Publishers, 1991. Genealogy Ref. 929.1 Eve. Gives a state by state narrative of genealogical records available, listing of archives and libraries, and county courthouse addresses.

Filby, P. William. Directory Of American Libraries With Genealogy And Local History Collections. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1988. Genealogy Ref. 026.929 Fil. Contains information on libraries and their holdings related to genealogy and local history.

Greenwood, Val D. Researchers Guide To American Genealogy. 2nd Edition. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1990. Genealogy Ref. 929.1 Gre. Professional genealogists recommend this book as an excellent starting point that can lead you to an intermediate level of research and then guide you towards more advanced sources. The Lee County Library system has one copy available for circulation.

Hornsby, Alton. Chronology Of African American History: From 1492 To The Present. 2nd Edition. Detroit, MI: Gale Research, 1997. Ref. 973.04 Hor. Reference source designed for users seeking information on important people, places, and events in the history of African American people from the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492 to the present. Topics include the subjects of: agriculture, anthropology, economics, humanities, legal affairs, politics, and science.

Johnson, Anne E. And Adam Merton Cooper. A Student's Guide To African American Genealogy. Phoenix, AZ: Orxy Press, 1996. 929.1 Joh. This is a well written basic introduction to African American research. It is geared towards introducing the subject of Black genealogy to students, but many adults will find the book interesting and easy to follow. Each chapter has a bibliography of suggested sources. All entries contain a brief abstract describing the contents and benefits one can expect to get by reading the book. This book is available for circulation.

Kemp, Thomas Jay. International Vital Records Handbook. 3rd Edition. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1994. Ref. 929.1 Kem. As the titles implies, this book contains forms and vital statistics information for all 50 states and many foreign countries. Forms can be photocopied. Narratives for each state and country will discuss records availability for each type of record.

Mabunda, L. Mpho ed. African American Almanac. 7th Edition. Detroit, MI: Gale Research, 1997. Ref. 973.04 Afr. Comprehensive guide to African American cultural and political life. Covers the period from 1600 through the present.

Smith, Jessie Carney ed. Ethnic Genealogy: A Research Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983. 929.1 Eth. This book on tracing roots is for all American people of color: Blacks, Asians, Hispanics, and Native Americans. All these ethnic groups have in common the fact that their past is not as well recorded in documents as that of European Americans.

Szucs, Loretto Dennis and Sandra Hargreaves Luebking The Source: A Guidebook Of American Genealogy. 2nd Edition. Salt Lake City, UT: Ancestry Publishing, 1997. Genealogy Ref. 929.1 Szu. Chapter 15, pages 575-589 gives a broad overview of Black American research.

Williams, Michael W. ed. The African American Encyclopedia. New York, NY and London: ENG: Marshall Cavendish, 1993. Ref. 973.04 Afr. This seven volume set gives an encyclopedic overview of famous people and events in Black American History from the 17th century up to the present.

Compiled by Bryan L. Mulcahy, Reference Librarian, Ft. Myers-Lee County Library, 8/5/98.