Social
Science, General
Annals of
the New York Academy of Sciences 925:170-186 (2000)
© 2000 New York Academy of Sciences
Ethical
Issues in the Ethnography of Cyberspace
DAVID HAKKENa
The project
of developing an anticipatory anthropology of the future reveals
unique ethical opportunities. For example, the increased importance
of performance means there is a substantial potential for a
substantive "resocialing". of work in organizations, just as the decline of
Modernism opens space for collective, situated ethics as opposed to
individualized categorical imperatives. An
anthropology of the future should address the question of the
future of ethics in general. The very possibility of human agency,
of informed individual moral action, is brought into question in new
ways. The profound flexibility of the computer as a medium carries
with it the dangers of hyper-abstraction, while the consolidation of
capital reproduction on a global level increases the scope for
apparently permanent mystification. Also important are the new
ethical challenges raised for those engaged in knowledge
"production" or science broadly conceived. These include
the necessary effort to acknowledge fully the role of non-human
agency, and the potentially profound possibilities in a
transformation in the character of knowledge, a correlate, at least
in part, of the commodification of knowledge
associated with distance learning. These challenges accompany the
more overt threats of transgenic entities and ecological
degradation. How can one be an ethical intellectual or academic
under these circumstances, let alone teach others to be? There are
also some specific challenges facing anthropology in particular.
Some derive from the increasing "privatization" of ethnography,
both in its growing popularity in modes of social reproduction more
directly implicated in the reproduction of capital and in the
declining academic support for anthropology. In a very specific
sense, anthropology has grounded its ethics on an appreciation of
and support for the reproduction of "really existing" culture. This
ethical compass is not available to the ethnographer who studies the
future. How do we participate ethically in the construction of a
future in whose character we are inevitably implicated?
Qualitative
Research, Vol. 4, No. 2, 179-200 (2004)
DOI:
10.1177/1468794104044431
© 2004 SAGE
Publications
Ethnography
Online: ‘Natives’ Practising and Inscribing Community
Sarah N. Gatson
Amanda Zweerink
Texas
A&M University and Mullen Advertising
The
article is an analysis of the methodology used to study a community
spawned from an Internet website devoted to a television serial. In
the five and a half years the site was in existence, its real-time,
linear, archived Posting Board spawned a community. Herein,
we discuss how our work at the site offers insights into significant
concepts in the practice of ethnography. In particular, we are
concerned with such questions as: How much distance is necessary between the
ethnographer and her site/subjects? Is distance necessary? Who is
inscribing whom? We also discuss the generative problem of anonymity and how
this concern has opened up our perceptions of ourselves and our
field site.
The Internet and
Opinion Measurement: Surveying Marginalized Populations
Koch, Nadine S.; Emrey, Jolly A.
Social Science
Quarterly, vol. 82, no. 1, pp. 131-138, Mar 2001
Problems of
self-selection, selection bias, & response rates have greatly limited the
use & validity of online surveys. This study addresses those issues by
examining population data for a group of Internet users who responded to a
series of online surveys, enabling the calculation of both response rate &
selection bias. A series of surveys were posted on a gay/lesbian Web site. We
compare demographic data collected from our study sample with national data on
gays/lesbians. A logistic regression model was used to determine if differences
existed between participants & nonparticipants.
The study sample of gays/lesbians comported well with the national sample.
Demographic characteristics of those electing to participate in the surveys
& nonparticipants are practically
indistinguishable. The response rate to our online surveys was approximately
16.4%, similar to that in nontargeted mail surveys.
The results indicate that, despite its limitations, the Internet can be a
valuable medium in reaching populations difficult to identify using standard
survey research techniques. 2 Tables, 11 References. Adapted
from the source document.
Privacy
Issues in Internet Surveys
Cho,
Hyunyi; LaRose, Robert
Social Science
Computer Review, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 421-434, winter 1999
Surveys
administered over the Internet have been plagued by low response rates &,
at times, have provoked respondent rebellions against researchers who stand
accused of broadcasting noxious unwanted e-mail or "spam." Here, the
issue is examined from the perspective of social science research on privacy to
understand the unique privacy context of Internet-based survey research. Online
surveyors commit multiple violations of physical, informational, &
psychological privacy that can be more intense than those found in conventional
survey methods. Internet surveys also invade the interactional
privacy of online communities, a form of privacy invasion seldom encountered
with traditional survey methods. Recommendations for improving response rates
to online surveys are offered, using accepted privacy protection practices already
found on the Internet as well as emerging Internet technologies. 1 Table, 1
Figure, 76 References. Adapted from the source document.
Lotz, A. D., et. al., Toward
Ethical Cyberspace Audience Research: Strategies for Using the Internet for
Television Audience Studies. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic
Media v. 48 no. 3 (September 2004) p. 501-1
This article examines the possibilities for qualitative
audience study afforded by the Internet, carefully detailing both the benefits
and dangers of such research. In answer to methodological issues resulting from
online communication with subjects, the essay calls for the application of
various feminist and anthropological methodological practices, and considers
methodological dilemmas related to perceived privacy, natural data and lurking,
informed consent procedures, balancing anonymity, and data accessibility. In
the course of outlining methodological considerations especially salient when
finding audiences through Internet spaces, we reflect on our own dilemmas in
designing studies that meet the ethical standards of feminist methodology. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
SHOOT
FIRST, ASK QUESTIONS LATER: ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN AN ONLINE COMPUTER GAMING
COMMUNITY. By: Morris, Sue. Media International Australia Incorporating
Culture & Policy, Feb2004 Issue 110, p31-41, 11p; (AN
12632970)
For researchers
investigating online communities, the existence of the Internet has made the
activities and opinions of community members visible in a public domain. FPS
gaming culture is a highly literate culture - members communicate and represent
themselves in textual forms online, and the culture makes use of a wide variety
of communication and publishing technologies. While a significant amount
o/'insider knowledge is required to understand and interpret such online
content, a large body of material is available to researchers online, and
sometimes provides more reliable and enlightening information than that
generated by more traditional research methods. While the abundance of data
available online in some ways makes research far easier, it also creates new
dilemmas and challenges for researchers. What extra knowledge is required of
the researcher? How can one ensure that one interpretations
of member statements are made with an understanding of meaning within that
culture? What responsibilities does the researcher have in their representation
of the culture under examination? What ethical issues must be considered?
[ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Denscombe, M
Research ethics
and the governance of research projects: the potential of Internet home pages
SOCIOL RES ONLINE
10 (3): - SEP 30 2005
Abstract: This
paper explores the potential of research project Home Pages in relation to the
growing need for good governance of research projects. In particular, the paper
considers the benefits such web pages might have in terms of research ethics
and argues that research project Home Pages can provide a very straightforward,
practical means of addressing a number of ethical issues related to both
on-line and off-line research. Limitations to the use of research project Home
Pages are also discussed and conclusions are drawn about the value of establishing
appropriately designed research project Home Pages as an integral component of
social research protocols.
Avatar watching:
participant observation in graphical online environments
Matthew Williams
School of Social
Sciences, Cardiff University
Increasingly,
social science researchers are turning to the internet to study
forms of ‘virtual’ culture. In tandem there has been a degree of
trepidation and innovation in the application of research methodology
to the online arena. As its focus this article takes the application
of participant observation to the virtual field. Drawing upon
narratives elicited from community members of an online graphical
social space, methodological questions are raised about the
viability of a ‘virtual ethnography’, while a more practical
discussion focuses upon the re-engineering of participant
observation for operation in an online pseudo-physical field. The
impact of graphical pseudo-presence, avatar representation, physical
online boundaries and multiple online sites upon the practice of
participant observation are examined. The article concludes that the
advent of new broadband technologies and the expansion of graphical online
environments require online methods that are both responsive
and adaptive in order to elicit reliable and valid data from rapidly
changing online environments.
Social Science
Computer Review, Vol. 22, No. 2, 228-241 (2004)
DOI:
10.1177/0894439303262561
© 2004 SAGE
Publications
Using the Online
Medium for Discursive Research About People With Disabilities
Natilene Bowker
Massey University N.Bowker@massey.ac.nz
Keith Tuffin
Massey University K.Tuffin@massey.ac.nz
Online interviews are deemed an effective and appropriate
approach for accessing discourse about the online experiences of
people with disabilities. Some of the central arguments in support
of conducting discursive research online, a type of qualitative approach,
are delineated. Various practical benefits are considered for researchers,
as well as participants—especially those with disabilities. Ethical
issues surrounding access to, and the analysis of, readily available
data in online communities are brought to the fore. In light of
ethical dilemmas surrounding naturalistic data collection online, an
alternative approach is offered, which utilizes online interviews
with people with disabilities about their online experiences. A
description of the data-collection process is given, including
participants and recruitment, materials and procedures, rapport
building, and security and ethics. Reflections on the process
highlight how methodological pitfalls were managed and, in some
cases, resolved.
Qualitative Research, Vol. 5, No. 4, 395-416 (2005)
DOI: 10.1177/1468794105056916
© 2005 SAGE Publications
Researching online populations: the use of online
focus groups for social research
Kate Stewart
Cardiff University, Stewartkf@cardiff.ac.uk
Matthew Williams
Cardiff University, WilliamsM7@cardiff.ac.uk
The survivability of ‘traditional’ methods within
computer-mediated settings is dependent upon their capacity to
be utilized and adapted to the technology that mediates human
interaction online. This article addresses the established focus
group method and evaluates its success in online applications, using
as examples two quite different research projects. The first, drawn
from research into the employment experiences of inflammatory bowel
disease sufferers exemplifies the use of asynchronous online focus
groups, identifying key practical issues such as online moderation
and the analysis of digital data. In contrast the second
study, into deviance within online communities, provides an example
of how synchronous forms of online focus groups, held within 3D
graphical environments, create further challenges for the researcher,
highlighting unique ethical considerations of conducting fieldwork
in cyberspace. The article draws together the authors’
experiences of applying the method to offer insights into the
viability and practicability of online focus groups.
A
code to keep away judges, juries and MPs. By: Iphofen,
Ron. Times Higher Education Supplement, 1/16/2004 Issue 1623, p24-24, 1p; (AN
12280872)
Discusses
the need for social scientists to regulate the ethics of their research or
having rules imposed on them in Great Britain. Ethical
complexities posed by the internet research that blurs the boundary between
public and private behavior; Review of ethical guidelines of the Human Rights
Act; System of research governance that is open to public security; Influence
of institutional fear of litigation on research.
Hakken D.
Ethical
issues in the ethnography of cyberspace.
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;925:170-86.
Review.
PMID: 11193012 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
The project of
developing an anticipatory anthropology of the future reveals unique ethical
opportunities. For example, the increased importance of performance means there
is a substantial potential for a substantive "resocialing"
of work in organizations, just as the decline of Modernism opens space for
collective, situated ethics as opposed to individualized categorical
imperatives. An anthropology of the future should
address the question of the future of ethics in general. The very possibility
of human agency, of informed individual moral action, is brought into question
in new ways. The profound flexibility of the computer as a medium carries with
it the dangers of hyper-abstraction, while the consolidation of capital
reproduction on a global level increases the scope for apparently permanent
mystification. Also important are the new ethical challenges raised for those
engaged in knowledge "production" or science broadly conceived. These
include the necessary effort to acknowledge fully the role of non-human agency,
and the potentially profound possibilities in a transformation in the character
of knowledge, a correlate, at least in part, of the commodification
of knowledge associated with distance learning. These challenges accompany the
more overt threats of transgenic entities and ecological degradation. How can
one be an ethical intellectual or academic under these circumstances, let alone
teach others to be? There are also some specific challenges facing anthropology
in particular. Some derive from the increasing "privatization" of
ethnography, both in its growing popularity in modes of social reproduction
more directly implicated in the reproduction of capital and in the declining
academic support for anthropology. In a very specific sense, anthropology has
grounded its ethics on an appreciation of and support for the reproduction of
"really existing" culture. This ethical compass is not available to
the ethnographer who studies the future. How do we participate ethically in the
construction of a future in whose character we are inevitably implicated?
Research
ethics in Internet-enabled research: Human subjects issues and methodological
myopia
Joseph B. Walther.
Ethics and Information Technology. Dordrecht: 2002. Vol. 4, Iss. 3; p. 205
Abstract (Summary)
As Internet
resources are used more frequently for research on social and psychological
behavior, concerns grow about whether characteristics of such research affect
human subjects protections. Early efforts to address
such concerns have done more to identify potential problems than to evaluate
them or to seek solutions, leaving bodies charged with human subjects
oversight in a quagmire. This article critiques some of these issues in light
of the US Code of Federal Regulations' policies for the Protection of Human Subjects,
and argues that some of the issues have no pertinence when examined in the
context of common methodological approaches that previous commentators failed
to consider. By separating applicable contexts from those that are not, and by
identifying cases where subjects' characteristics are irrelevant and/or
impossible to provide, oversight committees may be able to consider research
applications more appropriately, and investigators may be less ethically bound
to ascertain and demonstrate those characteristics. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
What
is special about the ethical issues in online research?
Dag Elgesem. Ethics and Information
Technology. Dordrecht: 2002. Vol. 4, Iss. 3; p. 195
Abstract (Summary)
In the analysis of
the ethical problems of online research, there is much to be learned from the
work that has already been done on research ethics in the social sciences and
the humanities. I discuss the structure of norms in the Norwegian ethical
guidelines for research in the social sciences with respect to their relevance
for the ethical issues of Internet research. A four-step procedure for the
ethical evaluation of research is suggested. I argue that even though, at one
level, the problems of online research are very similar to those we find in
traditional areas of social scientific research, there still are some issues
that are unique to research online. A general model for the analysis of privacy
and data protection is suggested. This model is then used to characterize the
special problems pertaining to the protection of privacy in online contexts,
and to argue that one cannot assume a simple distinction between the private
and the public when researching in such contexts. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Hamilton, J. C. The ethics
of conducting social-science research on the Internet. The Chronicle of
Higher Education v. 46 no. 15 (December 3 1999) p. B6-7
Efforts by researchers to understand the implications of
research on the Internet and to develop guidelines for its responsible use have
not kept up with the rapid growth of this new methodology. Although
institutional review boards (IRB) usually save researchers from ethical lapses,
some online research is being conducted without their required approval, and
they may be ill-equipped to evaluate certain studies. Guidelines are required
to help researchers and IRB members ensure that online research is both
scientifically and ethically sound.
Lindlof, T. R., et. al., Media
ethnology in virtual space: strategies, limits, and possibilities. Journal
of Broadcasting & Electronic Media v. 42 no. 2 (Spring 1998) p. 170-89
For more than twenty years, ethnography has been used to
study audience interpretation and social action. With the advent of the Internet,
this approach is now being applied to the cultural practices of
computer-mediated communication. This article appraises some strategies for
studying a new cultural arena in which aspects of embodiment and identity
differ significantly from traditional media reception. Four areas of
ethnographic engagement with virtual contexts are examined: the nature and
boundaries of virtual community, the social presence of participation, social
strategies of entry and membership, and technical utilities of data generation.
Ethical issues and future possibilities for research are also discussed. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
How
to launch a national Internet-based panel study quickly: lessons from studying
how American are coping with the tragedy of September
11, 2001? (eng; includes abstract) By Butler
LD, CNS Spectrums [CNS Spectr], 2002 Aug; Vol. 7 (8),
pp. 597-603; PMID: 15094696
This article
reports on the planning, development, and implementation of a large national Internet-based
panel study of how Americans are coping with the terrorist attacks of September
11, 2001. The study was designed to determine predictors and correlates of risk
and resilience, both cross-sectionally and
longitudinally. In order to acquire timely and meaningful data, we
developed/adapted an extensive set of measures, obtained human subjects approval, and posted a research Web site just 17
days after the attacks. This article describes the major hurdles we confronted
and the guidelines we recommend regarding these topics, including the
methodological trade-offs inherent in Internet-based research, information
technology requirements and tribulations, human subjects issues, selection of
measures and securing permission for their use, and the challenges of
participant recruitment. We also discuss issues that we did not anticipate,
including the survey intervention. We focus not on findings, but on the
concrete procedural, administrative, technical, and scientific challenges we
encountered and the solutions we devised under considerable time and resource pressures.
Buchanan
EA.
Ethics,
qualitative research, and ethnography in virtual space.
J
Infor Ethics. 2000 Fall;9(2):82-7.
No abstract available.
PMID: 12530453 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
NO ABSTRACT
Acting Ethically
in Online Ethnography
A BRIEF OUTLINE OF
ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES
Kylie J. Veale
Department of
Media and Information
Curtin University
of Technology
09 May 2002
http://www.veale.com.au/kylie/pdf/veale-2003-actingethicallyonlineethnography.pdf
This report is to
outline some key ethical considerations for online ethnography and to explore
what other researchers have done or suggested to mitigate any issues
Progress in Human
Geography, Vol. 31, No. 5, 654-674 (2007)
DOI:
10.1177/0309132507081496
© 2007 SAGE
Publications
Developing a
geographers' agenda for online research ethics
Clare Madge
Department of
Geography, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK, cm12@le.ac.uk
This paper explores and advances the debate surrounding
online research ethics. The use of internet-mediated research using
online research methods has increased significantly in recent years
raising the issue of online research ethics. Obviously, many ethical
issues of onsite research are directly translatable to the online
context, but there is also a need for existing ethical principles to
be examined in the light of these new virtual research strategies.
Five key issues of ethical conduct are commonly identified in the
literature pertaining to online research ethics: informed consent,
confidentiality, privacy, debriefing and netiquette. These are the
issues that are most commonly discussed in procedural ethical
guidelines for online research. However, this paper proposes that
given the recent increased formal regulation and research governance
over research ethics in many countries, it is important that
discussion of such issues continues as an embedded part of
professional self-regulation and procedural ethical guidelines are
used as creative forums for reflexive debate rather than simply
being routinely applied by bureaucratic ethics committees. Finally,
in problematizing the role of procedural
online ethical guidelines, the conclusions explore how geographers
can contribute to the future debate about online research ethics
Stern, Susannah R. (2003). Encountering
distressing information in online research: A consideration of legal and
ethical responsibilities. New Media & Society.
5 (2, June), 249-266.
This article explores the reasons why Internet researchers
should contemplate their responsibility for encountering distressing disclosure
in the course of their online research. 'Distressing' disclosure refers
specifically to information that indicates an online communicant is considering
harming him/herself or another/others (e.g. online users' announcements of
suicide intentions, threats to kill another person, etc). Given both the nature
of online communication and research, those who study Internet users and
communities may find themselves particularly likely to come across distressing
information in their research. Using personal homepages as a case in point,
this article inquires: are researchers legally accountable for reacting in some
way to the distressing online self-disclosure of those they study? Absent a
legal responsibility, do researchers have any ethical or moral obligation to
intervene? If an ethical responsibility does suggest itself, what are the
barriers to intervention? Finally, how might online researchers prepare
themselves for their encounters with distressing self-disclosure?
Kleinman,
S. S. Methodological
and ethical challenges of researching a computer-mediated group. In: Using the Internet
as a research tool for social work and human services. Haworth Press,
2002
NO ABSTRACT
Challenging Methodological Traditions: Research by Email
Resource Location:
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8-1/mcauliffe.html
The Qualitative Report, Volume
8, Number 1 March 2003
Engaging human service
practitioners as partners in research about sensitive areas of front-line work
can be difficult for a range of reasons. Time constraints, geographic
limitations, trust in the research relationship, issues of privacy, and fear of
professional judgment are only some of the barriers that researchers need to
overcome in order to assist workers to become involved in a reflective process
about areas of practice. This article outlines the development of a new method
of qualitative data collection designed to aid the reflective process and
assist practitioners to engage in an ongoing dialogue about complex ethical
dilemmas they had experienced in relation to their work with clients,
colleagues, managers and organisations. These ethical
dilemmas occurred in the contexts of health, mental health, child protection, work with young people, community work, disability, family
violence, aged care and research. This is the story of how the concept of
Email-Facilitated Reflective Dialogue was born. It is the story of how
Email-Facilitated Reflective Dialogue became a method of data generation and a
tool for reflection on issues of ethics, how twenty social workers throughout
Australia experienced it as a reflective medium, and how we, as partners in
research, experienced and evaluated the process.
Multilingualism, diaspora, and the
Internet: Codes and identities on German-based diaspora
websites
Androutsopoulos, Jannis
Journal of
Sociolinguistics, 2006, 10, 4, Sep, 520-547
The use of the
Internet in diaspora has attracted considerable
interest in media and cultural studies, but little attention has been paid to
sociolinguistic issues. This paper is a study of linguistic diversity on
websites maintained for and by members of diaspora
groups in Germany. Based on online ethnography and an interpretive approach to
code-switching, the paper explores the relationships between language choices
and the complex architecture of these websites, which offer edited content as
well as spaces for user interaction. Language choice in edited sections,
patterns of code-switching in discussion forums, and language choice for user
screen names and message signatures are examined. The findings demonstrate how
code choices are tailored to the requirements of different modes within a
website, and how various codes are creatively employed to display and negotiate
identities that are related to the diaspora and its
virtual discursive spaces. Tables, Figures, References.
Adapted from the source document
Investigating Cybersociety: A Consideration of the Ethical and Practical
Issues Surrounding Online Research in Chat Rooms (From Dot.cons:
Crime, Deviance and Identity on the Internet, P 164-179, 2003, Yvonne Jewkes, ed. -- See NCJ-199525) ,
NCJ 199535. Andy DiMarco, Heather DiMarco; 2003. (16 pages).
One of the primary
ethical issues in online ethnographic research concerns what constitutes public
and private material in chat rooms. Although interactions in the main chat room
can be claimed to form part of the public domain, messages sent by one chatter to another as one-to-one messages are another
matter. Researchers who may pursue such a private interaction without
disclosing the purpose of the conversation and requesting permission to use it
in research available to the public would betray confidences. On the other
hand, if the researchers disclose their intentions and request permission for
inclusion of conversation content in a research report, this may change the
tone and content of the interaction. This chapter suggests guidelines for
conducting research (especially covert) in chat rooms in a safe and responsible
manner; these guidelines have been adapted from Hamman,
1997. First, when entering a chat room, provide the information asked for by
the host. Second, only ask questions that occur as a natural part of the
interaction, and do not attempt to direct or lead the conversation in any
specific way. Third, do not instigate private interaction with a chat room
member, but if anyone should request it of the researcher, it is acceptable to
respond. Fourth, whenever possible, chat rooms should only be entered when the
researcher is alone and in a place where he/she cannot be observed; it is
important that the information received be used for research and only for that
purpose. Fifth, if at any time the researcher feels uncomfortable with the
conversation or that others are uncomfortable or intimidated by the
researcher's presence in the chat room, the conversation can be terminated, or
the researcher can exit the chat room. Finally, if the researcher is using a
computer owned by a university or other institution, make research intentions clear
to the tutor or supervisor and follow the institution's guidelines regarding
online activity. A chat room glossary is provided.
Cyberpunters and Cyberwhores: Prostitution on the Internet (From Dot.cons: Crime, Deviance and Identity on the Internet, P
36-52, 2003, Yvonne Jewkes, ed. -- See NCJ-199525) , NCJ 199528. Keith Sharp, Sarah Earle; 2003. (17 pages).
In discussing the
types of Web sites dedicated, in one way or another, to prostitution, the most
obvious are noted to be sites that market the services of prostitutes. These
include "escort agencies," which tend to be regional and operate at
the "upper" end of the market; "independents," women who
advertise sexual services on the Internet but do not work for or through an
agency; and "massage parlors," which typically focus on an
establishment and contain photographs of the facilities offered. Another
significant category of prostitution-related material on the Internet are the various Web sites dedicated to reviewing the
services of individual prostitutes. In the United Kingdom, this category is
dominated by one site, "Punternet," which
contains over 5,000 "reviews" of British prostitutes. In presenting
the authors' analysis of this site, this chapter first provides a detailed
account of the Punternet site itself and explores
some of the methodological issues and concerns associated with this type of
covert cyber-ethnography. It then explores "punting" as a transgressive act and documents some of the ways in which
punters seek to minimize the risks to social identity and the ways in which
participation in this type of cyber-community serves to normalize what would
otherwise be considered a transgression. This is followed by a focus on men's
concerns with giving women pleasure during paid-for-sex. This analysis
concludes that the Internet allows anonymous men who use prostitutes to
communicate with one another, share practical information, and develop a
virtual subculture of communication and values in which paying for sex and
discussing women as sexual objects is the norm.
Web Surveys:
Applications in Denominational Research
Sims, RC
REVIEW OF
RELIGIOUS RESEARCH; VOL 49; NUMB 1; pp. 69-80; 2007
NO ABSTRACT